The delivery of polynucleotide and other substantially cell membrane impermeable compounds into a living cell is highly restricted by the complex membrane system of the cell. Drugs used in antisense, RNAi, and gene therapies are relatively large hydrophilic polymers and are frequently highly negatively charged. Both of these physical characteristics preclude their direct diffusion across the cell membrane. For this reason, the major barrier to polynucleotide delivery is the delivery of the polynucleotide across a cell membrane to the cell cytoplasm or nucleus.
One means that has been used to deliver small nucleic acid in vivo has been to attach the nucleic acid to either a small targeting molecule or a lipid or sterol. While some delivery and activity has been observed with these conjugates, the nucleic acid dose required with these methods has been prohibitively large.
Numerous transfection reagents have been developed that achieve reasonably efficient delivery of polynucleotides to cells in vitro. However, in vivo delivery of polynucleotides using these same transfection reagents is complicated and rendered ineffective by in vivo toxicity, serum interactions, and poor targeting. Transfection reagents that work well in vitro, cationic polymers and lipids, typically form large electrostatic particles and destabilize cell membranes. The positive charge of in vitro transfection reagents facilitates association with nucleic acid via charge-charge (electrostatic) interactions thus forming the nucleic acid/transfection reagent complex. Positive charge is also beneficial for nonspecific binding of the vehicle to the cell and for membrane fusion, destabilization, or disruption. Destabilization of membranes facilitates delivery of the substantially cell membrane impermeable polynucleotide across a cell membrane. While these properties facilitate nucleic acid transfer in vitro, they cause toxicity and ineffective targeting in vivo. Cationic charge results in interaction with serum components, which causes destabilization of the polynucleotide-transfection reagent interaction and poor bioavailability and targeting. Membrane activity of transfection reagents, which can be effective in vitro, often leads to toxicity in vivo.
For in vivo delivery, the vehicle (nucleic acid and associated delivery agent) should be small, less than 100 nm in diameter, and preferably less than 50 nm. Even smaller complexes, less that 20 nm or less than 10 nm would be more useful yet. Delivery vehicles larger than 100 nm have very little access to cells other than blood vessel cells in vivo. Complexes formed by electrostatic interactions tend to aggregate or fall apart when exposed to physiological salt concentrations or serum components. Further, cationic charge on in vivo delivery vehicles leads to adverse serum interactions and therefore poor bioavailability. Interestingly, high negative charge can also inhibit in vivo delivery by interfering with interactions necessary for targeting. Thus, near neutral vehicles are desired for in vivo distribution and targeting. Without careful regulation, membrane disruption or destabilization activities are toxic when used in vivo. Balancing vehicle toxicity with nucleic acid delivery is more easily attained in vitro than in vivo.
Rozema et al., in U.S. Patent Publication 20040162260 demonstrated a means to reversibly regulate membrane disruptive activity of a membrane active polyamine. The membrane active polyamine provided a means of disrupting cell membranes. pH-dependent reversible regulation provided a means to limit activity to the endosomes of target cells, thus limiting toxicity. Their method relied on modification of amines on a polyamine with 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride.

This modification converted the polycation to a polyanion via conversion of primary amines to pairs of carboxyl groups (β carboxyl and γ carboxyl) and reversibly inhibited membrane activity of the polyamine. Rozema et al. (Bioconjugate Chem. 2003, 14, 51-57) reported that the β carboxyl did not exhibit a full apparent negative charge and by itself was not able to inhibit membrane activity. The addition of the γ carboxyl group was reported to be necessary for effective membrane activity inhibition. To enable co-delivery of the nucleic acid with the delivery vehicle, the nucleic acid was covalently linked to the delivery polymer. They were able to show delivery of polynucleotides to cells in vitro using their biologically labile conjugate delivery system. However, because the vehicle was highly negatively charged, with both the nucleic acid and the modified polymer having high negative charge density, this system was not efficient for in vivo delivery. The negative charge likely inhibited cell-specific targeting and enhanced non-specific uptake by the reticuloendothelial system (RES). Also using the 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride-modified polymers, Rozema et al. demonstrated formation of small ternary electrostatic complexes of nucleic acids, polycations, and 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride-modified polymers.
Rozema et al., in U.S. Patent Publication 20080152661, improved on the method of U.S. Patent Publication 20040162260 by eliminating the high negative charge density of the modified membrane active polymer. By substituting neutral hydrophilic targeting (galactose) and steric stabilizing (PEG) groups for the γ carboxyl of 2-propionic-3-methylmaleic anhydride, Rozema et al. were able to retain overall water solubility and reversible inhibition of membrane activity while incorporating effective in vivo hepatocyte cell targeting. As before, the polynucleotide was covalently linked to the transfection polymer. Covalent attachment of the polynucleotide to the transfection polymer was maintained to ensure co-delivery of the polynucleotide with the transfection polymer to the target cell during in vivo administration by preventing dissociation of the polynucleotide from the transfection polymer. Co-delivery of the polynucleotide and transfection polymer was required because the transfection polymer provided for transport of the polynucleotide across a cell membrane, either from outside the cell or from inside an endocytic compartment, to the cell cytoplasm. U.S. Patent Publication 20080152661 demonstrated highly efficient delivery of polynucleotides, specifically RNAi oligonucleotides, to liver cells in vivo using this new improved physiologically responsive polyconjugate.
However, covalent attachment of the nucleic acid to the polyamine carries inherent limitations. Modification of the transfection polymers, to attach both the nucleic acid and the masking agents is complicated by charge interactions. Attachment of a negatively charged nucleic acid to a positively charged polymer is prone to aggregation thereby limiting the concentration of the mixture. Aggregation can be overcome by the presence of an excess of the polycation or polyanion. However, this solution limits the ratios in which the nucleic acid and the polymer may be formulated. Also, attachment of the negatively charged nucleic acid onto the unmodified cationic polymer causes condensation and aggregation of the complex and inhibits polymer modification. Modification of the polymer, forming a negative polymer, impairs attachment of the nucleic acid.